Specific learning disorders: Characteristics and differential features

Specific Learning Disorders are neurodevelopmental conditions that affect reading (dyslexia), written expression (dysgraphia), or mathematics (dyscalculia). They involve persistent learning difficulties that cannot be explained by intellectual disability or inadequate instruction. Early identification and comprehensive assessment help guide appropriate interventions and reduce their academic and emotional impact.

A specific learning disorder is characterized by persistent difficulties in acquiring a key academic skill. This low academic performance is unexpected and is not the result of a more general learning difficulty, such as an intellectual disability.

There are various types of specific learning disorders that can affect a student’s academic performance:

Students with learning disorders present persistent and unexpected difficulties in specific areas of academic performance as a result of an underlying neurodevelopmental disorder, whose origin includes the interaction of genetic, cognitive, and environmental factors. One of the defining characteristics of a specific learning disorder is that the difficulty persists despite adequate instruction and intervention.

Students with a learning disorder:

• Present underlying difficulties in a key academic skill that has an impact throughout life.
• Do not perceive or process information with the same efficiency or accuracy as children without a learning disorder.
• Often have a family member with learning difficulties.
• Do not respond to adequate intervention in the expected way.
• Do not present intellectual disability and may have highly developed abilities in different areas.

These disorders are usually detected at school age, when academic demands increase and the difficulties become more evident. However, in many cases the signs can already be observed in early childhood education, especially in pre-reading skills, phonological awareness, or basic numeracy.

Dyslexia can be defined as a specific learning disorder of neurological origin. It is characterized by difficulties in accurate and/or fluent word recognition, as well as by poor spelling and difficulties in decoding. These difficulties usually derive from a deficit in the phonological component of language, which is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and to effective instruction in the classroom. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension, which may hinder the development of vocabulary and general knowledge.

When identifying a specific learning disorder with difficulties in reading (dyslexia), deficits are usually present in one or both of the following key academic areas:

Dysgraphia can be defined as a specific learning disorder of neurological origin. It is characterized by difficulties in accurate and/or fluent written expression, as well as by poor spelling and handwriting. These persistent difficulties in writing are usually unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and to effective instruction in the classroom. Students with a specific learning disorder with difficulties in written expression usually have to make much more effort and for a longer time to produce written work at the same level as a person with typical writing skills.

When identifying a specific learning disorder with difficulties in written expression, deficits are usually present in one or both of the following key academic areas:

A specific learning disorder with difficulties in mathematics (dyscalculia) is a difficulty in learning and understanding mathematics. Students who present this disorder have problems understanding numbers, learning to manipulate them, acquiring mathematical facts, and present other related difficulties.

Dyscalculia can be defined as a condition that affects the ability to acquire arithmetic skills. Students with dyscalculia may have difficulties understanding simple numerical concepts, lack an intuitive understanding of numbers, and present problems in learning mathematical facts and procedures. Even when they obtain a correct answer or use an appropriate method, they usually do so in a mechanical way and without confidence.

When identifying a specific learning disorder with difficulties in mathematics, deficits are usually present in one or both of the following key academic areas:

Differences between the main learning disorders:

It is recommended to carry out a specialized assessment when persistent signs of difficulty are observed that interfere with learning. Some warning signs include:

To diagnose a specific learning disorder, it is essential to determine that the student demonstrates an unexpectedly high level of difficulty in a particular academic area.

It is not appropriate to draw conclusions about academic performance too early, as all students make mistakes and require effort when they are first learning to read, write, or calculate, this is entirely typical. Difficulties are considered “unexpected” when they persist over a significantly longer period than anticipated, or when progress is unusually slow.

That said, this does not mean that teachers and parents should wait for the student to fail before taking action. Early identification makes it possible to implement more effective intervention strategies and helps prevent the negative emotional impact often associated with ongoing academic struggles.

The assessment of specific learning disorders must be multidisciplinary and include the evaluation of cognitive, linguistic, and academic skills. The assessment approach must take into account both the student’s educational experiences and their performance in a series of standardized tests.

Current DSM-5 guidelines for professionals who carry out assessments of learning difficulties establish that specific learning disorders with difficulties in reading (dyslexia), and/or in written expression (dysgraphia), and/or in mathematics (dyscalculia) are diagnosed through:

In addition to the four diagnostic criteria described below, many children with learning disorders present weaknesses in processing tasks. This is especially frequent in reading and written expression disorders. For this reason, assessments usually include an analysis of phonological processing, orthographic processing, and working memory. This information helps to guide intervention and ongoing support.

A Persistent difficulties during the school years in learning and using at least one academic skill (e.g., reading accuracy/fluency; spelling accuracy; written expression skills and fluency; numerical competence). These difficulties have persisted and have not improved as expected, despite the provision of targeted intervention for at least six months. This intervention should be evidence-based and, preferably, delivered by a qualified and experienced professional.

B The individual’s difficulties are assessed through standardized achievement tests and are observed to be at a level significantly below that of most peers of the same age. In some cases, individuals may be identified as having a learning disorder even when their performance falls within the average range, but only when it is demonstrated that this level is achieved through unusually high effort and ongoing support.

C The difficulties typically become evident in the early years of schooling. An exception occurs when problems emerge in late primary or secondary education, when academic demands increase significantly (for example, when students are required to read long and complex texts or produce more sophisticated written work under time constraints).

D A specific learning disorder should not be diagnosed if there is a more plausible explanation for the individual’s difficulties. For example, if the individual presents with: intellectual disability; sensory impairment; a history of absenteeism; insufficient proficiency in the language of instruction; psychosocial factors; or lack of appropriate instruction and/or intervention.

After the assessment, an individualized intervention plan is established, which may include speech and language therapy, academic support, and coordination with the school environment. The goal is not only to improve academic performance, but also to reduce emotional impact, increase self-esteem, and promote equal access to learning.

What is a Specific Learning Disorder?
A Specific Learning Disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition that causes persistent difficulties in reading, writing, or mathematics despite appropriate instruction.

What is the difference between dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia?
Dyslexia mainly affects reading, dysgraphia affects written expression, and dyscalculia affects mathematical learning and reasoning.

When should a child be evaluated?
An evaluation is recommended when persistent learning difficulties interfere with academic progress or cause frustration, anxiety, or ongoing school difficulties.

How are Specific Learning Disorders diagnosed?
Diagnosis involves a comprehensive assessment including developmental and educational history, standardized testing, teacher observations, and evaluation of the student’s response to intervention.

Why is early identification important?
Early identification allows appropriate support to begin sooner, helping reduce academic difficulties and their emotional consequences.

Alina is a bilingual Speech and Language Therapist specializing in developmental disorders, early intervention, and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). She holds a Bachelor’s degree in Speech and Language Therapy and a Master’s degree in Early Intervention from the Complutense University of Madrid (UCM). She has also completed a specialization in ASD Intervention through UNED and is one of the first therapists in Spain certified in the PACT (Paediatric Autism Communication Therapy) approach. Throughout her career, she has worked in special education schools, early intervention services, and clinical practice, while also teaching and supervising Speech and Language Therapy students during their professional placements. She currently combines her clinical work as a Speech and Language Therapist at SINEWS with her role as a Learning Support Specialist at Kings College Soto de Viñuelas, helping children and adolescents with speech, language, communication, and learning difficulties reach their full potential.